The Strengths and Weakness of the key Methods of concepts of Usability

The method used in any form of media analysis is crucial to the outcome of the particular piece of research. This can be applied to any scientifically based source of analysis. This also includes the social sciences. In relation to the study of computer systems, this also applies as computer systems are ultimately utilised by human agents. This has meant that the human-computer interaction inherent to computer systems are now undeniably twinned with the social sciences and humanities. Therefore, the relationship between methodologies and outcomes also applies to any analysis based upon computer use and development.For this essay, the particular concept based upon human-computer interfacing to be scrutinised was that of usability. Like most other concepts in the human sciences, the concept of usability has its own particular methodological components and tools. The particular methodological tools relating to usability chosen for this analysis were the qualitative measurements used in focus groups, interview techniques and the concept of usability itself. As usability is essentially a cognitively focused concept then the data used in the analysis of usability is primarily qualitative.This means that to measure usability, feedback is usually qualified in terms of empirical rather than positivist data as it is based upon experience. This is why the empirical methods of the focus group and interview technique that pertain to the social sciences are used and were to be addressed in this essay. The main conceptual components of usability were outlined by its forefather Jacob Neilson, who stated that a heuristic analysis of interactive experiences could be judged on the basis of their success to ascertain as to whether a computer system was good or bad.This means that we must first of all look at the strengths and weaknesses of usability before we critique them. However, we must also identify the components before we begin the analysis. As we have already suggested, us ability is not a quantitative term relating to any fixed data outcome. This means that to identify the key conceptual components in the analysis of usability, we must clearly define what they are. Further, Neilson also states that the key components of usability are essential to any analysis.It is from this overview of the concept of usability that we will turn to an analysis highlighting its strengths and weaknesses in methodological approach. The Strengths and Weaknesses of the Key Methods and Concepts of Usability It is clear that there is a relationship between computer systems and the construction of human social systems. The computer is become an essential component in advanced technological cultures. In many ways it has become the dominant tool of communication now that it has implemented the formerly distinct mediums of television and text.In relation to the computer as a social medium, it is its interactive nature that separates it from other mediums. This can be seen as be ing realised as early as the 1970s, in an age before interactive communication had actualised. For example, the notion of the hypertext put forward by seminal thinker and post modern philosopher Jean Baudrillard highlights the way in which interactivity constructs not only social relations with each other, but also the sensual relationship that we have individually with the computer interface.In one crucial extract, Baudrillard states that the relationship with the interface is one: ‘Based on contact, a sensory mimicry and a tactile mysticism, basically ecology in its entirety, comes to be grafted on to this universe of operational simulation, multi-stimulation and multi response. ’ (Baudrillard, 1976, p. 9) It is from the realisation in the extract that contemporary theorists and experts in the field of human-computer relations have developed the concept of usability.This is essentially the yardstick by which the connectivity between the computer system and human cogni tive functioning can be devised and then measured in terms of its success. In essence, it is part of the interactive feedback produced by the human through their experience that determines whether the interactive process in any particular experience is successful or not. This measurement can therefore be referred to as its usability. Basing his approach on this philosophical realisation, Jacob Neilson devised a way in which this interactive process could be qualitatively measured.This includes the methodologies associated with empirically based social science, including focus groups and interview techniques. To utilise these factors in the potential success, or successful construction of web design, Neilson outlined ten primary factors. These were developed as part of a heuristic system. These factors include: ‘1. Visibility of system status, 2. Match between system and the real world, 3. User control and freedom, 4. Consistency and standards, 5. Error prevention, 6. Recogniti on rather than recall, 7.Flexibility and efficiency of use, 8. Aesthetic and minimalist design, 9. Help users recognize, diagnose, and recover from errors, 10. Help and documentation’ (Neilson, 1994) By developing a system based upon these key factors, Neilson created a rigid conceptual model for successful user-face design, implementing the functional principles of human contact with the computer interface. This heuristic formulation has had success in both developing web design and measuring the interactivity of the design.For instance, it‘s methodology has been found to be able to identify ‘major usability problems’ (CHFCS, 1992). Further, by implementing this measuring tool based upon empirical feedback, such as in the case of the focus group and interview technique, the success of identifying and treating any problems in the functioning of a problematic web site have a ‘higher probability of being found in a heuristic evaluation’ (CHFCS, 1 992). The strength of using such methodologies is that they arrive at experience driven results that indicate problems relating to cognition.Further, this allows the problems associated with web design to be identified in relation to usability when utilised in terms of feedback. Essentially, the qualitative data can be measured in relation to the themes indicated by Neilson that have a known cognitive effect in the experience of interaction. This is further exemplified in the rationale on Neilson’s own web site devoted to the heuristic analysis of computer systems. The site follows the principles of the design, whilst explaining the way in which to utilise the principles of usability.The extent to which Neilson demonstrates the use of these principles and validates the evidence that can be used is revealed in a number of examples that have achieved success through usability. This is highlighted in the extract which states that: ‘Rapid Application Development (RAD) proce sses such as Agile, Scrum, and the like, simultaneously pose an opportunity and a threat to achieving a quality user experience. It all depends on how it's handled. The standard methodologies as described in books don't work in practice, if you care about the usability of your products.But small modifications work wonders’ (Useit. com, 2009) This notion of adaptability is another strength of the methodology as it recognises the need for human feedback in a thematic and conceptual format. Furthermore, it reveals the diverse nature in which feedback can be drawn before being applied to the core conditions laid out in the heuristic principles. Rather than using quantitative data or rigid data referring to hypotheses, the data is given in a thematic sense highlighting the individual’s experience with the site and the cognitive problems that may have occurred in the process.The key heuristic principles then allow for problem identification and adjustments made in a bid to e nhance the experience of usability. In essence, the measurements are set for a versatile analysis of computer systems in relation to interactivity. This can utilise a wide range of empirical and qualitative methodologies. However, the methodologies will not simply address the likes and dislikes of the individuals, but also relate their experience to the cognitive disparity between human and computer.Contrastingly, the weaknesses in this approach and its methodologies can be seen in a return to the philosophical underpinnings of usability and the significance of the immersive experience. Rather than there being any problem with the methodologies used in relation to the heuristic principles, it is in the conceptual basis of usability itself that we see the greatest amount of criticism being applied. This is primarily because the notion of usability is founded upon one key principle indicated by Baudrillard at the rejection of the other.Essentially, although Neilson outlines interactiv ity and marries this to the concept of human cognition with a degree of success, it is conceptually focused upon functioning. That is to say, that the immersion of the user experience is only measured in terms of how the interface functions and its success in that outcome. Further, this success is only relative to the user’s cognitive functioning. By basing his principles and outcomes on cognitive functioning, he denies any aesthetic or intellectual action made by the user in relation to the experience.For example, the lack of aesthetic design can be evidenced in relation to his own web site. This is because it takes a functional approach at the expense of any aesthetic. However, the aesthetic experience to functioning can not be overlooked in the experience of the user. The irony here is that while Neilson may be dismissing aesthetics in his design, his consumers i. e. the users of his site are nevertheless subject to an aesthetic experience. While being functional in terms of usability, the site is aesthetically detrimental to the experience of the user.In this sense, it would appear that Neilson is simply rejecting the role and significance of aesthetic experience from the experience of interfacing. The other major criticism of usability and the methodologies that it utilises is in relation to the extent of interactivity that the heuristic principles allow for. Essentially, with such a simple form of processing information, then the role of interactivity is lost in the experience. That is to say that the computer system is simply conforming to the will of the user rather than engaging with them.This denies the validity of the interactive process to some degree in terms of immersion. For example, Sherry Tuckle denotes the significance of interactivity in the construct of the self. Essentially, she suggests that the chances of immersion within the web site are better increased by a degree of socialised feedback that can be sensually registered in terms of another intelligent entity, rather than coded responses (Turkle, 1997). The suggestion here is that the more diverse the computer can respond in terms of immediate sensual feedback, the greater the chances of immersion become.In relation to designs based upon a purely functioning information source, the experience becomes that of an entity wishing to ascertain information as if the computer itself. This is quite a contrast to the actual human experience that is found in the process of interaction. With this notion of seeking information we can see another criticism. Rather than being subject to the experience of a user world based upon multi-stimulus, the user is driven by a purpose to collect information through a cognitively mutual function.While this perhaps serves well as the provision of a service based upon receiving or extracting information, it denies the process of immersion and interactivity that may instil or insight a relationship between the user and the web site. T his oversight is highlighted well in Neilson’s claims that ‘evolution did not intend humans to navigate in 3D space’ (Molich & Neilson, 1990). What is indicative of oversight in this idea is that humans already inhabit a 3D space in the real world. Essentially, the notion of the interactive experience is one that negates the actual experience.This means that the experiences being utilised by the methodologies are overlooked and reinterpreted to arrive at the web sites success in providing a service based upon function. This emphasises Neilson’s dualistic belief that there is a cyber-reality based upon function and a real-reality that bears no relation. This is contradictory in that it goes against the principles of hyper-reality outlined by Baudrillard and many other theorists and critics who highlight the way in which computer systems interact to create a virtual world based upon our own real world.Conclusion We can see from this essay that Neilsonâ€℠¢s notion of usability is immensely significant in relation to the computer medium and how it is used. It has a good and practical methodological component borrowed from the social sciences, based upon the cognitive relationship between humans and computers. It is a good approach that utilises experience and addresses the cognitive relationship between user and web site. However, at a more intricate level, it rejects the aesthetic experience from the design that constitutes much of the potential for immersion.In this, it rejects or denies the very essence of any engaged human experience and replaces it with outcomes. Further, it supports the notion of a dualism between that of user reality and actual reality, which denies any notion of virtual reality. Essentially, the experience of the interactive process is supported by usability in its utilisation of the methodologies of the social sciences, yet denies it in its reduction of the user experience to that of a static functionally di rected process based upon stimulus and response.Although it has borrowed from Baudrillard and hypertext to great effect, it has negated the principles of a multi-faceted aesthetic activity and denied much of the sensual and tactile experience that immersion involves. Bibliography Baudrillard, J. , (1976) Symbolic Exchange and Death Taken from: The Order of Simulacra (1993) London: Sage. Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. , (1992) Finding usability problems through heuristic evaluation Monterey, California, United States, p.373 – 380 Molich, R, & Nielsen, J. , (1990) Improving a human-computer dialogue, Communications of the ACM, v. 33 n. 3, p. 338-348 Nielsen, J. (1994). Heuristic evaluation. In Nielsen, J. , and Mack, R. L. (Eds. ), Usability Inspection Methods, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY. Turkle, S. , (1994) Constructions and Reconstructions of Self in Virtual Reality: Playing in the MUDs. † Mind, Culture, and Activity: An International Journal 1, no. 3 : 158-167. Useit. com (2009) Taken from: www. useit. com.

buy custom Continuum of Care essay

buy custom Continuum of Care essay Continuum of care is an integrated system of care that guides and tracks patients over time through comprehensive steps of health services spanning all levels of intensity care. Effective continuum of care involves concept providing a framework for delivery of optimum health care to patient populations. Several factors influence health care delivery. For example, geographic location would have more or less a positive influence on health care delivery. Area of residence, may it be in a metropolitan city or rural locality, and the quality of service have an effect on people's health. This involves the distance one has to travel to get the medical care and the availability of the service provider, and this entails the geographical location. In a metropolitan city, many residents will access medical care with ease, and they benefit fully from the system. In these areas, there is a proportionate share of high-quality health care service providers (Kahn et al.). As recommended in the Understanding the U.S. Health Services System, in a metropolitan city, procedures and steps are taken to perfect health care service delivery to all residents independently of their race or religion, unlike in rural local facilities that have disproportionate low-quality health care provided influenced by pat ients race. People living in a metropolitan city are associated with high income and have access to quality health care even with current economic situation. There is a major tertiary care hospital in a metropolitan city allowing good access to quality care. Compared wth people living in urban areas, rural residents have higher poverty rates, tend to be faced by health challenges, and face more difficulty in accessing health services. There are a large number of primary care doctors, specialists, hospitals, and other health resources compared to other areas. In urban areas, distance and availability of transport to an emergency room or hospital enables receiving prompt treatment. Local health care system finds it difficult to hire, host, and raise funds to acquire and maintain proficient medical professionals and health service providers. In urban city, there is the availability of special services, such as treatment for rare diseases and expensive diagnostic equipment. Apart from geographic location, there are other factors that affect health care service delivery, either in a metropolitan city or local health, either positively or negatively. Lack of finances makes people without insurance covers not to seek medical care or not be able to buy medicines. In addition, the government faces a challenge to develop new hospitals or buy expensive diagnostic equipments. People who are not conversant in spoken and written English are likely to have challenges in accessing optimum primary care due to inability to understand instructions received from care providers. Language barrier face people mostly in local areas. Some people are less likely to seek care due to their personal ethnic believes; this is because they think medical providers will discriminate against treating them appropriately because of their race, gender, or religion. Others think home remedies will work better, and they still bellieve vaccinations cause autism, thus they end up denying th eir child preventive care. Understanding the U.S. health care systems explains the organization and financing of the system, which has a positive impact on the health care delivery, as well as placing the U.S. health care in a greater international context. The text tries to outline the challenges faced in the health sector and how to overcome them. Moreover, it outlines sources of funding for medical care from both, public health insurance and private health insurance. U.S. government assists patients by reimbursing funds to hospitals and health service providers. The funds are also sourced from private insurers. This has led to the country enjoying gain in life expectancy over past 40 years. GRMC as a provider meets most settings provided by the Understanding U.S. health service system text by being committed to providing high-quality care in a friendly hospital environment and offering comprehensive health care services. Patients should have access to appropriate care and information, and providers are cult urally competent and responsive to patients needs. The setting also requires a clear accountability of the total care of patients. Conclusion Geographical location and individual circumstances, such as finances, doctors, patients ability to communicate, race, and gender affect health care delivery. Other factors impacting delivery of services along the continuum of care are related to personal beliefs about medical care and medical care practitioners. Buy custom Continuum of Care essay

Welsh v. United States (1970)

Welsh v. United States (1970) Should those seeking conscientious objector status under the draft be limited to only those who make their claims based on their personal religious beliefs and background? If so, this would mean that all those with a secular rather than religious ideology are automatically excluded, regardless of how important their beliefs are. It really makes no sense for the U.S. government to decide that only religious believers can be legitimate pacifists whose convictions should be respected, but thats exactly how the government operated until the militarys policies were challenged. Fast Facts: Welsh v. United States Case Argued: January 20, 1970Decision Issued:Â  June 15, 1970Petitioner: Elliot Ashton Welsh IIRespondent: United StatesKey Question: Could a man claim conscientious objector status even if he had no religious-based grounds?Majority Decision: Justices Black, Douglas, Harlan, Brennan, and MarshallDissenting: Justices Burger, Stewart, and WhiteRuling: The court ruled that claiming conscientious objector status was not dependent on religious beliefs. Background Information Elliott Ashton Welsh II was convicted of refusing to submit to induction into the armed forces - he had requested conscientious objector status but did not base his claim on any religious beliefs. He said that he could neither affirm nor deny the existence of a Supreme Being. Instead, he said his anti-war beliefs were based upon reading in the fields of history and sociology. Basically, Welsh claimed that his had serious moral opposition to conflicts in which people are being killed. He argued that even though he was not a member of any traditional religious group, the depth of sincerity of his belief should qualify him for exemption from military duty under the Universal Military Training and Service Act. This statute, however, allowed only those people whose opposition to the war was based on religious beliefs to be declared conscientious objectors - and that did not technically include Welsh. Court Decision In a 5-3 decision with the majority opinion written by Justice Black, the Supreme Court decided that Welsh could to be declared a conscientious objector even though he declared that his opposition to war was not based on religious convictions. In United States v. Seeger, 380 U.S. 163 (1965), a unanimous Court construed the language of the exemption limiting the status to those who by religious training and belief (that is, those who believed in a Supreme Being), to mean that a person must have some belief which occupies in his life the place or role which the traditional concept of occupies in the orthodox believer. After the Supreme Being clause was deleted, a plurality in Welsh v. United States, construed the religion requirement as inclusive of moral, ethical, or religious grounds. Justice Harlan concurred on constitutional grounds, but disagreed with the specifics of the decision, believing that the statute was clear that Congress had intended to restrict conscientious objection status to those persons who could demonstrate a traditional religious foundation for their beliefs and that this was impermissible under the . In my opinion, the liberties taken with the statute both in Seeger and todays decision cannot be justified in the name of the familiar doctrine of construing federal statutes in a manner that will avoid possible constitutional infirmities in them. There are limits to the permissible application of that doctrine... I therefore find myself unable to escape facing the constitutional issue that this case squarely presents: whether [the statute] in limiting this draft exemption to those opposed to war in general because of theistic beliefs runs afoul of the religious clauses of the First Amendment. For reasons later appearing, I believe it does... Justice Harlan believed that it was quite clear that, as far as the original statute was concerned, an individuals assertion that his views were religious was to be regarded highly while the opposite proclamation was not to be treated as well. Significance This decision expanded the types of beliefs that can be used to get conscientious objector status. The depth and fervency of the beliefs, rather than their status as part of an established religious system, became fundamental to determining which views could exempt an individual from military service. At the same time, though, the Court also effectively expanded the concept of religion well beyond how its typically defined by most people. The average person will tend to limit the nature of religion to some sort of belief system, usually with some sort of supernatural basis. In this case, however, the Court decided that religious...belief could include strong moral or ethical beliefs, even if those beliefs have absolutely no connection to or basis in any sort of traditionally acknowledge religion. This may not have been entirely unreasonable, and it was probably easier than simply overturning the original statute, which is what Justice Harlan seemed to favor, but the long-term consequence is that it fosters misunderstandings and miscommunication.

Invasive Exotic Species Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Invasive Exotic Species - Essay Example The scientific study of insects has its beginning as early as the sixteenth century. Entomologists classify insects based on their taxonomy into various groups known as apiology, coleopterology, dipterology, heteropterology, lepidoptrelogy, myrmecology, orthopetrology, trichoptrology (Triplehorn, 2005) Each entomologist spends his life in the study of any one of these groups. Insect identification is very difficult as the attributes distinguishing them are often invisible or unclear. The Exotic Species (Invasive species) Exotic species are defined as those organisms that are not specific or intrinsic to a particular area. (Naylor, 2001) Their origin is a different place than their place of living. Scientific study and results prove that some introduced species are a threat to the ecosystem in which they get transferred. More scientifically, Introduced species are â€Å"species that have become able to survive and reproduce outside the habitats they evolved or spread naturally† (Naylor, 2001). Species are introduced in a habitat usually while they are transported from one region to another. These introductions can be accidental or intentional. Intentional inductions by humans is done thinking that a certain group of species is some how beneficial to human beings. Invasive species are one sub group of introduced species that have an ill effect on their foreign ecosystem. They behave as pests (G. K. Meffe. 1998). These immigrants breed expand and develop at an exponential pace causing great damag e to the eco relations. Its effect is simply defined in three terms namely arrive, survive and thrive. There are many clauses for a species to become invasive. It has to find a suitable vector to transfer it from its habitat to another one. The climatic conditions of the new habitat must match closely with its previous habitat. It should be capable to survive in that habitat and also outperform the existing native species and has to start spreading throughout like a plague. (Townsend CR. 1991) Basically invasive species have a negative impact on the new ecosystem. Some of the characteristics for an invasive species are the mode of reproduction, Asexual as well as sexual reproduction, the ability to withstand a wide range of climatic conditions and the reproductive output. (Townsend CR. 1991) One of these species that is responsible for defoliation of trees is the Gypsy Moth. The Gypsy Moth The scientific name of gypsy moth is Lymantria dispar. It is commonly called as gypsy moth to symbolize its mobility, that is, the pace at which it covers an area and also European moth. It is of the order Lepidoptera, class insecta and phylum Arthropod. This moth has its origin basically from Europe, Asia and North Africa. (ent.msu.edu, 1997) The Gypsy Moth This moth has been introduced in the North America and East Coast in the year 1869. It was an intentional introduction of this moth. A French scientist named Lepold Trovelot who lived in Massachusetts has introduced this moth. He was experimenting different moths and silk worms for having better quality silk production (Forbush, 1896). He with the intension of breeding silk worms with other moths introduced the gypsy moth in North America. His experiment failed. Some of the moths brought by him

English Literature Poetry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

English Literature Poetry - Essay Example Every religious book of any known religion reveals the contrasting qualities of man and his god. The Bible, the Christian's sacred book, also considered the most read of all literary works, chronicles man's never-ending struggle against sin and how God time and again reclaims him. The books of the bible from Genesis (Old Testament) to Revelation (New Testament) explicitly reveal the condition of man (a sinner) who is destined to die as a consequence of the inherent sin and how God, because of his great love, bore the consequence of sin by dying on the cross. In return, those who repent of their sins and accept God to have power over them will triumph over the consequence of sin. The condition set here is one's recognition of his sinful nature and acceptance that only by the power of God he may be saved. However, those who will harden their hearts and continue in their wicked ways will be chastised. 2 Peter 2:9 clearly states, "The Lord knoweth how to deliver the godly out of temptati ons, and to reserve the unjust unto the day of judgment to be punished:"(emphasis mine).4 That only goes to prove that the same loving God is a just God, who does not leave the unrighteous unpunished. Such is the case presented in Psalm 58, which unveils the nature of the Sovereign God who rules the universe, will establish His just rule on the earth in and through his people whereupon the righteous will prosper and the wicked will suffer. More on this will be discussed later. In this paper, a single thought (justice of God) is given two almost different interpretations. Both centers on the 58th Psalm, one is the King James Version and the other a version by Christopher Smart. As the explanation progresses, we will see two different pictures of the just God, first in the Old Testament, then in the New Testament. First we shall briefly examine the circumstances prior to the creation of this psalm. During the Old Testament times, judges, prophets, priests, and kings are considered God-ordained and empowered individuals, meaning they were not just elected by people, like we do when we need to change the rulers of the state, but are given inspiration by God to prophesy, to judge or to rule. They are political leaders to whom the Israelites looked up to and fulfill specific roles at a given time. A number of prophets were raised to speak for God, act on His behalf, and communicate His message courageously to the nation of Israel. Among them are Moses, Elijah, Samuel and Elisha, Isaiah and Jeremiah. The judges, on the hand, were used to deliver chastised Israel from the various enemies God permitted to oppress them during the first centuries in the land. Israel's priests fulfilled a more political role, whereas earlier they had led in the more religious sense - in worship, sacrifices and so on. David, was anointed king by Samuel while he was still a shepherd boy to reign after Saul, the first king of Israel, dies. I Samuel records how Saul transgressed against God when he disobeyed God's commission for him to utterly destroy the Amalekites. Instead he spared Agag, the king of the Amalekites, and took the best of the plunder.5 This incident incited Samuel to anoint David as

The New Liberalism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The New Liberalism - Essay Example The time bracket, from ‘1880s to 1920s constitutes a relatively cohesive era of extensive industrialization and mass enfranchisement’ (Alexander et all.1995). It is also stressed that (Pluralist assertion) Socio-economic development is a precondition rather then the result of welfare state reforms, thus defining â€Å"development as a process of social differentiation and empowerment that generates social needs and fiscal as well as other state resources as well as political demands for provision of income security† ( Wilensky and Lebeaux.1958; Williamson and Pampel.1993). It means that development precedes the demand for welfare state which is accordingly fulfilled in the form of policy response seeking new patterns of redistribution. On the other hand the development of welfare state has been also attributed to the increase in (organic) State’s ‘specialized capabilities to steer’ and chanalize the stresses it experiences during the process of modernization (Skowronek.1982; Skocpol.1992). The Marxists argue that ‘capitalist development is the source which changes class forces and their balance of power’ (Rueschemeyer, Stephens and Stephens. 1991). This means that capitalism through welfare policies redirect and redistribute the power of class forces and tries to assimilate the classes creating new elite in its own reflection. It is however argued that a singular theoretical approach does not fulfill our requirement to determine the dynamics and contours of development of welfare state in UK at the turn of the century.

Karma of Violence in Macbeth

Karma of Violence in Macbeth With elements like wars, assassinations, and murders, violence takes up a significant part of Macbeth. At the early stage of Macbeth, the audience is presented a battlefield scene where a bloody massager appears. Echoing such a violent and bloody image, the play ends with Macbeth being killed. Although karma is an Indian belief, lines like This even-handed justice / Commends the ingredients of our poisoned chalice / to our own lips (Macbeth I.vii.10) reveal traits of karma in the Scottish play.  [1]  Karma means that all actions have consequences which will affect the doers of the actions at some future time (Reichenbach 399). In this essay, I will argue that violence is not merely actions performed by the characters but the skeleton of plot and theme. For the sake of a clear analysis, I will first outline the concept of karma and karma of violence in Macbeth. Then I will conclude that the karmic effect of violence drives the development of plot and reflects moral judgement. As suggested by Rajendra Prasad, the law of karma should be viewed as a retributive theory of morality (qtd. in Keown 331). Reichenbach also noted that 1.Morally accountable actions which are done out of desire for their fruits are subjected to karma; 2.Some karmic effects are manifested at once or in this life, some in the next life; 3.Karmic effect of actions can be accumulated (qtd. in Keown 335). In this essay, Keowns idea on karma is taken; the relationship between karma and intention is indisputable; volitional action alone can result in karma; sinning in ones heart without physical performance is possible that same act may have different karma for different people (Keown 336). Rebirth and karma beyond characters portrayed lives will not be discussed here. Violence is not only a part of the play, but its skeleton. Karma, as stated, is accumulative and is resulted from moral and physical actions. In Macbeth, violence, with its karmic effect, breeds violence. In Act one, Macbeth is reported about cutting Macdonwald open, unseame[s] him from the nave to th chops, / [a]nd fixe[s] his head upon battlements (I.ii.22-3)and is [n]othing afeard of what [himself] didst make, / [s]trange images of death (I.iii.97-8). This suggests his violent nature and his capacity of bloody deeds in the future. Such a valiant and worthy achievement (I.ii.24), as a result, won him the title of Thane of Cawdor. It was then the realization of prophecy bred his ambition whose murder yet is but fantastical (I.iii.139). The word fantastical echoes with Banquos address to the witches I the name of truth, / Are ye fantastical or that indeed / which outwardly ye show?(I.iii.54-5), drawing parallel between the witches and Macbeths fantastical thoughts which are not indee d outwardly [he] show[ed] as well. With such murderous thoughts, Macbeth, whose [place] [is] the nearest (I.iv.36) to Duncan betrays his own family blood and country to secure the throne. The karmic effect of this bloody throne is fear; the fear on Banquos issue and Macduffs flee to England prompts him further violence and ultimate self-destruction. His bloody acts make returning were as tedious as go over (III.iv.140-1).Violence, therefore, breeds on-and-on violent deeds till the end of the play. As Macbeth puts it, Things bad begun make strong themselves by ill (III.ii.55), such on-and-on violence increases intensity over time. After violence against Macdonwald, Macbeth killed Duncan in sleep. Sleep, under Shakespeares description, is innocent . . . that knits up the reveled sleeve of care . . . the great natures second course, chief nourisher in lifes feast (II.ii.34-8). The peaceful description of natures gift and Duncans royal position contrast with the murder, highlighting intensified violence. Although he is unsettled by the deed, he soon recovers and exhibits a greater degree of violence. Without consulting his wife, Macbeth readily kills two innocent servants. Compared to the hesitation shown in Duncans murder, he becomes bolder. Violence, as a recurring role, performs an endless loop. Macbeth, with a mind full of scorpions (III.ii.36), then sends out three men in total only to ensure Banquo and Fleances deaths. He becomes determined to take a step further to kill the weaker gender and innocent children in Macduffs family. When Macduff receives the tragic news, he asks about his children repeatedly and all my children?, My children too?, What, all my pretty chickens and their dam / at one fell swoop? (IV.iii.211-8). Such responses reflect that people then perceived the act of killing innocent children as outrageously violent.The climax of on-and-on violence came when Macduff greets the King with Macbeths head, saying Behold, where stands / the usurpers cursed head. (V.viii.54-5), putting an end on the loop of violence in the play. This illustration of the intensifying loop of violence suggests karmic consequences of murderous thoughts. In the analysis of Shakespearean violence, Foakes suggests that the urge to violence is deeply embedded in the human psyche, and creates recurring whatever political formations are dominant (Foakes 16). This viewpoint echoes with this karmic loop of violence. The series of violent acts keeps driving the plot development. The karma begins with Macbeths sinning in [his] heart (Keown 336) with murderous thoughts. Had he stopped at any point of his violent murders, he would not have suffered the deadly karma. Karmic effects of Macbeths repetitive violence, as suggested, accumulated throughout the play, causing the downfall of the soul and self-destruction. The karma of violence, therefore, extends the plot with series of consequences in Macbeth. In Macbeth, karma of violence is not only the consequences of behaviour. It implicitly reflects good morality in violence. Contrasting conventional idea, violence does not necessarily imply bad karma. Traditional Christian belief generally subscribes to the idea of Thou shalt not kill. However, under karma, same act may have different consequences for different people. At the beginning of the play, Duncan ordered the execution of Thane of Cawdor. This act of violence, justified by the traitors betrayal, did not result in a bad karma. Duncan, despite his death, enjoys the peace of mind of which Macbeth is deprived. Although Banquos violent behaviours are not explicitly described, audience can understand that Banquo, as a warrior, is capable of violence. His acts of violence, however, are justified by his selfless patriotism. In the play, Shakespeare uses Banquo as a moral contrast against Macbeth. They are of similar background, official rank and power at the beginning of Macbeth; they both face the tempting prophecy. However, Banquo endeavours to keep [his] bosom franchised and allegiance clear (II.i.26-7) while Macbeth jump[s] the life to come to commit murders (I.vii.7). The fact that Banquo succeeds in upholding morality in the same temptation suggests that Macbeths tragic ending is not a result of fatalism, but karma out of volitional actions. Karma is hugely based on ethical consideration and moral accountability. With moral actions, Banquos family line is blessed with good karma, contrasting Macbeths violence-induced fatal karma. Macduff, who performed the visually bloodiest violence by cutting and displaying Macbeths head, is also exempted from bad karma.  [2]  Since Macbeth has no children of his own, it is unlikely that Macduffs bloody deed would provoke another loop of violence against himself. It is reasonable to suggest that, Macduffs violent action, as a karma on Macbeth, is justified by its good intention of saving Scotland from the tyranny. The above examples of karma contrast against the deadly karma on Macbeth and Lady Macbeth. In Macbeths case, he performs all the violence based on his desire for power and the fear in securing it. Accordingly, he is subjected to karmic effects, which mostly take the form of internal struggles. Booth concluded that, all three murders towards Duncan, Banquo and Macduffs family are followed immediately by scenes of suffering and self-tortures (Booth 31). After Duncans murder, every noise appals Macbeth and he hears ominous voices threatening that he could no longer sleep with peace (II.ii.56). Although Macbeth does not show explicit guilt after Banquos death, his sub-conscience tortures him. He is startled by the image of Banquos phantom despite his self-regard as a fearless man. Macbeths soul becomes weary after murdering Macduffs family. He pessimistically believes that [his] way of life / [i]s falln into the sere, the yellow leaf, / [a]nd that which should accompany old age, / [a]s h onor, love, obedience, troops of friends, / [he] must not look to have.(V.iii.22-6). Ironically, Macbeth has traded his soul, friends, honour for a fruitless crown and a lifeless life. He is caught in a tragedy of his own making. In this way, the karma on Macbeth manifests as his internal struggles. Despite sympathy towards Macbeth, Macbeths selfishness, betrayal and violence deserve his own deadly and violent karma. As suggested by the Bible, For the wages of sin is death (Roman 5: 23). Therefore, given his murderous deeds, his death has to be brutally violent for moral justification. Macbeths tragic death implies that Shakespeare has acknowledged the immorality of Macbeths violent deeds. Lady Macbeth, similarly, has to pay a price for pouring [her] spirit in [Macbeths] ear, / [a]nd chastise[s] with the valour of [her] tongue (I.v.24-5) Ribner commented that The relationship between Macbeth and his wife steadily deteriorates . . . . The force of evil severs Macbeth from the rest of humanity; it breaks also the bond which ties him to his wife. He lives more and more closely with his own fears into which she cannot intrude . . . . No longer does he confide in her. (Ribner 164) Considering Lady Macbeths admiration to Macbeth and her devotion to help him get the throne, psychological separation between the couple is unbearable to Lady Macbeth. It is reasonable to deduce that this psychological separation may explain her mental breakdown and loss of masculinity displayed before. The fact that the seemingly evil Lady Macbeth is also subjected to karmic condemnation from her own conscience may signifies her humanness, but more importantly, the deadly karma is to impose moral judgement on her behaviours. Karma of a particular behaviour reflects its moral nature and judgement. In Macbeth, not all violent deeds result in bad karma. Considering the play is set in a political disturbed period in which Scotland was first traumatized by traitors and then Macbeth the Tyrant, violence, to a certain extent, was a norm in that era. The fact that Scotland restores her order through violence against Macbeth suggests that some violence is morally right. These characters who perform violence for morally right reasons can be exempted from bad karma. Karma, in Buddhist belief, is controlled by a Supreme Being. Shakespeare, as a Supreme Being of this play, reflects judgements towards the characters behaviours with different karmas resulted. Karma on violence, therefore, gives the audience some ideas on the morality of violence. Violence is the linking element that drives plot development. It is through the recurring nature of karma that violence in Macbeth trammel[s] up the consequence (I.vii.3) of Macbeths self-destruction. By designing different karmic effects, Shakespeare explores the good and evil of violence. Although sympathy towards human flaws may be valued, it is necessary to have deadly karma for ill-intended murders committed. Violence, therefore, is not merely a part of the plot. It is the driving force of the plot and a subtle exploration on morality of violence.